Econ. Environ. Geol. 2023; 56(1): 75-85
Published online February 28, 2023
https://doi.org/10.9719/EEG.2023.56.1.75
© THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY
Correspondence to : *Sajadwafaa2@gmail.com
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided original work is properly cited.
The potential sources and spatial distribution of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were investigated in the leaf plants of Al-Zubair city. A total of 14 samples of
Keywords Al-Zubair , PAHs,
Gaseous emissions resulting from fuel combustion can be reduced through the use of technologies in the upstream stage of combustion, including what is applied after the combustion stage and before leaving the chimney
Avoid constructing oil refineries and refining facilities close to cities and densely populated areas
Conducting health and epidemiological studies of the population around the study area for the purpose of estimating the incidence of diseases carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic caused by toxic toxic elements
Pollution that resulting from cars is a big problem all over the world. (Deubner et al. 2004) note that advanced measurements of air quality such as regulatory and technical innovations like unleaded gasoline, catalytic converters, and fuel-efficient engines have often been negated by an increase in vehicle traffic. Numerous pollutants are contaminating the environment near roads (Unger and Prinz 1997). Fuels, gasoline tank walls, engine components, vehicle components, catalytic converters, tires, brake pads, and road surface materials can all include heavy metals. Incomplete fuel combustion and abrasion of road surfaces both release polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) into the environment (Unger and Prinz 1997).
In urban areas, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are generated from a variety of sources, including vehicle emissions, fossil fuel combustion, painting, wood and garbage burning, solvent application, and asphalt pavement operations at small factories and workshops (Essumang et al., 2006). Changes in weather patterns and the chemical and physical properties of each PAHs contribute to modifications to the compounds' overall concentrations. Vapor and/or particle-bound PAHs are found in the air and can be deposited on vegetation, trees, soil, and water through both wet and dry deposition. Plants absorb PAHs in the vapor phase through stomata or outer circular lamellae, whereas particle-bound PAHs have accumulated on the leaf surface (Franzaring, 1997). Anthracene is a good example of a PAH that can cross the epicuticle wax and leaf cuticle to enter the cytoplasm of the epidermal cells (Wild et al., 2004). This suggests that the accumulated PAHs are swiftly transferred to the wax layer of the leaf. PAHs are a type of organic pollutant that may be found just about anywhere but are more prevalent in urban and industrial settings due to the prevalence of waste incineration, vehicle traffic, and residential heating systems. Ratios of the distinct PAHs have been proposed to differentiate between different origins with using ratio of PAHs in Table 3. (Yunker et al., 2002; Ravindra et al., 2008), although it is generally accepted that PAHs can arise from petrogenic, pyrolitic, and diagenetic sources. Al-Zubair cities have rapid population growth, coupled with the pollution from nearby oil and gas fields, electrical, petrochemical, and fertilizer sector plants, has led to the deposition of substantial volumes of atmospheric pollution in recent years. The primary goal of this research is to assess the pollution in Al-Zubair city by using the C. lancefolius leaves and identifying their content and source of heavy metals and PAHs as an indicator for pollution.
Table 3 PAHs diagnostic ratio analysis for Al-Zubair
PAH ratios | Ant/(Phe+Ant) | BaA/BaA+Chr) | In/(In+BghiP) | Flu/Pyr | FlA/FlA+Pyr) | ΣLMW/ΣHMW | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boundary values | Petrogenic | <0.1 | <0.2 | <0.2 | <1 | <0.5 | >1 |
Pyrogenic | >0.1 | >0.2 | >0.5 | >1 | >0.5 | <1 | |
Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0 | |
Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa | ND | ND | 0.8272 | 0.0183 | 0.0179 | 0 | |
Kut Al-Markaz | ND | 0.2008 | 0.8346 | 0.0364 | 0.0351 | 0.0055 | |
Al-Drahmia | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0 | |
Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat | ND | 0.1568 | ND | ND | ND | 0.0031 | |
Al-Ameer | ND | 0.4170 | 0.3952 | 0.0318 | 0.0109 | 0.0154 | |
Mazraea | ND | ND | 0.1813 | 0.0110 | 0.0109 | 0.0214 | |
Hay Al-Askary | ND | ND | ND | 0.1809 | 0.1532 | 0 | |
Near Al-Al-Shuaiba Refinery | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0 | |
Main Waste Area | ND | ND | 0.9575 | ND | ND | 0.0198 | |
Al-Hussain | ND | 0.5666 | 0.3088 | 0.1394 | 0.1223 | 0 | |
Al-Thobat | ND | 0.2143 | 0.9217 | 0.0017 | 0.0017 | 0.0015 | |
AL-Shuhdaa | ND | ND | 0.3170 | 0.0859 | 0.0791 | 0 | |
Mean | ND | 0.1196 | 0.3648 | 0.0389 | 0.0332 | 0.0051 | |
ND-Not detected |
The study area is located in the Al-Zubair district, it is located within a longitude (47° 40'-47° 44' E) and a latitude (30° 20'-30° 24' N). the spatial boundaries of the area at the southwestern part of Basrah Governorate, west of Safwan sub-district, and south of Umm Qasr and Khor Al-Zubair sub-district, with an area of about 1134 km², it is surrounded by many oil and gas fields, State Company for Petrochemical Industry and Fertilizer industry plants. The city consists of (23) residential neighborhoods Fig. 1, (Al Zubair Municipality Directorate, 2015).
Leave plants samples were taken from 14 different stations namly; (Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa, Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa, Kut Al-Markaz, Al-Drahmia, Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat, Al-Ameer, Mazraea, Hay Al-Askary, Near Al-Al-Shuaiba Refinery, Main Waste Area, Al-Hussain, Al-Shuaiba Houses, Al-Thobat and AL-Shuhdaa, Fig. 1.
The information of each sample was written on the plastic bags and then transferred to the laboratory. Samples were collected under stable weather conditions during September 2021, fieldwork was carried out in the urban district inside of AL-Zubair city include green space, open space traffic roadsides and industrial area The samples were taken by scissors and the highest height was 2 meters. A number of open leaves were taken and in the direct direction of the road and the oil facility. The old parts were taken, not the new shoots. They were taken to the laboratory to dry in the atmosphere of the laboratory. Then the leaves were grinded without washing and transferred to the analysis laboratory at the University of Basrah, College of Marine Sciences, Department of Chemistry.
Sixteen PAHs specified were extracted by using Soxhlet apparatus according to method of Wang et al. (2011), including Benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(123cd)pyrene and dibenzo(ah)anthracene Naphthalene (NAP), 2-Methylnaphthalne (2-METH), Acenapthylene (ACY), Acenapthene (ACE), Flourene (FLU), Phenanthrene (PHE), Anthracene (ANT), Flouranthene (FLUA), Pyrene (PYR), Benz[a] anthracene (B[a]A), Chrysene (CHR), Benzo[b]flouranthene (B[b]F), Benzo[k]flouranthene (B[k]F), Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), Benzo[ghi]perylene (B[ghi]P), Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyren (Ind p). then PAHs compounds were identified in the laboratories of Basrah oil company by using 7890 Agilent capillary Gas Chromatography (GC), For heavy metals analysis, the sample was grinded without washing and transferred to the analysis laboratory. Ten of heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Ni, Mn, Fe, Co, Cd, Cu, Cr and AS) were determined in Conocarpus lancifolius using Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) in Iran.
The results showed that the mean values for PAHs compounds in C. lancefolius leaves have the following orders: Pyr(498.07 ng/g)>Indo(26.73 ng/g)>Ben(A)Ant(23.13 ng/g)>Ben(15.84 ng/g)>Ben(A)(13.10 ng/g)>Flu(12.67 ng/g)>Ben(K)(3.82 ng/g)>Chr(3.14 ng/g). The mean content of LMW PAHs is 3.7 ng/g, whereas the mean content of HMW PAHs is 598.98 ng/g (Table 1), (Fig. 2, 3). The total mean of carcinogenic aromatic compound concentration is 544.25 ng/g. The maximum total PAHs content was recorded at Kut Al-Markaz (2034.56 ng/g), whereas the minimum value was recorded at Near Al-Shuaiba Refinery (20.03 ng/g). The PAHs accumulation in C. lancefolius leaves was influenced by the traffic volume according to results at the sampling location and the high concentration of PAHs emitted by vehicles on the road.
Table 1 PAHs concentration in
Stations | Aromatic ring | Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa | Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa | Kut Al-Markaz | Al-Drahmia | Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat | Al-Ameer | Mazraea | Hay Al-Askary | Near Al-Shuaiba Refinery | Main Waste Area | Al-Hussain | Al-Thobat | AL-Shuhdaa | Mean | Min | Max | AC | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PAHS Compounds | |||||||||||||||||||
LMW | NAPHTHALENE | 2 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0 | 0 | 0 | ND |
2-METHYLNAPHTHALNE | 2 | ND | ND | 2.42 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 5.76 | ND | ND | ND | 0.62 | 2.42 | 5.76 | ND | |
ACENAPHTHYENE | 3 | ND | ND | 6.42 | ND | ND | 1.96 | ND | ND | ND | 2.69 | ND | ND | ND | 0.85 | 1.96 | 6.42 | ND | |
ACENAPHTHNEN | 3 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 3.43 | 2.97 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.49 | 2.97 | 3.43 | ND | |
FLUORENE | 3 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 5.38 | 2.63 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.61 | 2.63 | 5.38 | ND | |
PHENANTHRENE | 3 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 1.99 | ND | 0.15 | 1.99 | 1.99 | ND | |
ANTHRACENE | 3 | ND | ND | 2.33 | ND | 2.24 | 6.05 | 2.94 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 1.04 | 2.24 | 6.05 | ND | |
HMW | FLUORANTHENE | 4 | ND | 9.27 | 62.12 | ND | ND | 24.51 | 3.95 | 4.25 | ND | ND | 32.07 | 2.19 | 26.36 | 12.67 | 2.19 | 62.12 | 9.27 |
PYRENE | 4 | 265.28 | 506.23 | 1702.91 | 33.49 | 655.94 | 770.71 | 356.39 | 23.50 | ND | 385.40 | 229.97 | 1238.50 | 306.59 | 498.07 | 23.50 | 1702.91 | 506.23 | |
CHRYSENE | 4 | ND | ND | 8.43 | ND | 8.79 | 4.95 | ND | ND | ND | ND | 7.61 | 11.09 | ND | 3.14 | 4.95 | 11.09 | ND | |
BENZO(A)ANTHRACENE | 4 | ND | ND | 2.12 | ND | 1.63 | 3.54 | 13.15 | 255.12 | 12.21 | ND | 9.96 | 3.02 | ND | 23.13 | 1.63 | 255.12 | ND | |
BENZO(B)FLUORANTHENE | 5 | ND | ND | 7.49 | ND | 10.52 | 2.95 | ND | ND | 4.08 | ND | 1.86 | ND | 3.66 | 2.35 | 1.86 | 10.52 | ND | |
BENZO(K)FLUORANTHENE | 5 | 1.03 | 2.02 | 1.23 | ND | 4.60 | 24.83 | ND | 2.72 | 3.72 | 2.05 | 2.26 | 2.83 | 2.41 | 3.82 | 1.03 | 24.83 | 2.02 | |
BENZO(A) PYRENE | 5 | ND | ND | 24.07 | ND | 8.82 | 109.80 | 9.46 | 2.84 | ND | ND | 3.07 | 3.31 | 8.98 | 13.10 | 2.84 | 109.80 | ND | |
INDENO(1,2,3-CD)PYRENE+DIBENZO(A,H)ANTHRACENE | 6 | ND | 15.40 | 179.43 | 5.55 | 16..48 | 59.38 | 3.03 | 5.69 | ND | 36.46 | 4.81 | 30.48 | 7.24 | 26.73 | 3.03 | 179.43 | 15.40 | |
BENZO(G,H,I)PERYLENE | 6 | 11.28 | 3.21 | 35.54 | ND | 21.15 | 90.83 | 13.72 | ND | ND | 1.61 | 10.77 | 2.58 | 15.60 | 15.87 | 1.61 | 90.83 | 3.21 | |
ΣLMW | 0 | 0 | 11.17 | 0 | 2.24 | 16.84 | 8.5611 | 0 | 0 | 8.45 | 0 | 1.99 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 11.17 | |||
ΣHMW | 277.59 | 536.15 | 2023.39 | 39.04 | 711.48 | 1091.55 | 399.73 | 294.14 | 20.03 | 425.54 | 302.42 | 1294.04 | 370.87 | 277.59 | 536.15 | 2023.39 | |||
ΣCar | 266.31 | 517.53 | 1786.66 | 33.49 | 683.74 | 837.58 | 376.45 | 285.60 | 20.03 | 387.45 | 283.76 | 1257.65 | 339.03 | 266.31 | 517.53 | 1786.66 | |||
PAHs | 277.59 | 536.15 | 2034.56 | 39.04 | 713.72 | 1108.39 | 408.29 | 294.14 | 20.03 | 433.99 | 302.42 | 1296.03 | 370.87 | ΣPAHs | 277.59 | 536.15 |
*Σ16-PAHs: means concentration of 16 kinds of PAHs. *ΣCar-PAH: means concentrations of carcinogenic PAHs, including Benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(123cd)pyrene and dibenzo(ah)anthracene (USEPA 2002b). ΣLMW sum of 7 Low Molecular Weight Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons :Naphthalene (NAP), 2-Methylnaphthalne (2-METH), Acenapthylene (ACY), Acenapthene (ACE), Flourene (FLU), Phenanthrene (PHE), Anthracene (ANT), Flouranthene, ΣHMW sum of 9 High Molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons : (FLUA), Pyrene (PYR), Benz[a]anthracene (B[a]A), Chrysene (CHR), Benzo[b]flouranthene (B[b]F), Benzo[k]flouranthene (B[k]F), Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) Benzo[ghi]perylene (B[ghi]P), Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyren (Ind p). ND, not detected. ΣCar sum of 7 Carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons:BaA,chr,BbF,BkF,BaP,InP and BghiP Ac: Acceptable concentration Netherlands Ministry of Housing and environment (1994)
One major and effective uptake method in plant leaves is the inhalation of volatile PAHs from the environment (Simonich and Hites 1994a). Vapor-phase PAHs are typically taken in through the leaf cuticle rather than through the stomata (Barber et al., 2004). After penetrating the cuticle, these PAHs may be taken into the body. At room temperature, low molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (LMW PAHs) with fewer than four rings are more likely to condense as a vapor and deposit on plants in the troposphere. Subsequently, the deposited PAHs could enter cells via diffusion.
Heavy metal concentrations in
Table 2 Heavy metal concentration (ppm) in conocarpus lancifolius leaves of study area and comparison with other studies
Sample location | Pb | Ni | Zn | Mn | Fe | Cu | Cr | Co | Cd | As |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa | 1 | 2 | 21 | 16 | 208 | 5 | 1 | 0.9 | 0.2 | <1 |
Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa | 2 | 6 | 36 | 32 | 709 | 11 | 4 | 0.9 | 0.1 | <1 |
Kut Al-Markaz | 3 | 4 | 29 | 22 | 562 | 11 | 3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | <1 |
Al-Drahmia | 1 | 3 | 24 | 13 | 238 | 14 | 1 | 0.7 | 0.1 | <1 |
Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat | 1 | 2 | 19 | 27 | 300 | 5 | 1 | 0.5 | 0.2 | <1 |
Al-Ameer | 1 | 4 | 41 | 31 | 576 | 10 | 3 | 0.6 | 0.3 | <1 |
Mazraea | 1 | 2 | 15 | 16 | 125 | 6 | 1 | 0.7 | 0.1 | <1 |
Hay Al-Askary | 1 | 4 | 16 | 19 | 200 | 7 | 1 | 0.4 | 0.3 | <1 |
Near Al-Al-Shuaiba Refinery | 1 | 1 | 19 | 12 | 395 | 5 | 2 | 0.2 | 0.4 | <1 |
Main Waste Area | 1 | 3 | 9 | 29 | 170 | 4 | 1 | 0.6 | 0.1 | <1 |
Al-Hussain | 1 | 1 | 6 | 9 | 112 | 3 | 1 | 0.5 | 0.2 | <1 |
Al-Shuaiba Houses | 1 | 1 | 18 | 10 | 216 | 4 | 2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | <1 |
Al-Thobat | 1 | 3 | 11 | 14 | 393 | 5 | 2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | <1 |
AL-Shuhdaa | 1 | 1 | 11 | 8 | 112 | 4 | 1 | 0.3 | 0.3 | <1 |
Min | 1 | 1 | 11 | 8 | 112 | 4 | 1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | <1 |
Max | 3 | 6 | 41 | 32 | 709 | 14 | 4 | 0.9 | 0.4 | <1 |
Mean | 1.21 | 2.64 | 19.64 | 18.42 | 308.28 | 6.71 | 1.71 | 0.50 | 0.20 | <1 |
1Normal Values | 5-10 | 0.1-5 | 27-150 | 30-300 | 20-100 | 5-30 | 0.1-0.5 | 0.02-1 | 0.05-2 | 1-1.7 |
2 Basrah city | 3.25 | 20.61 | 32.64 | 22.56 | 266.54 | 13.96 | 18.52 | 1.16 | 0.51 | 2.36 |
3Ramadi city | 6.99±0.44 | 7.71±0.18 | 62.95±2.96 | 49.64±3.23 | - | 14.03±0.84 | 7.26±0.41 | 2.13±0.08 | 0.93±0.18 | - |
4Permissible value | 6.49±0.21 | 7.55±0.19 | 55.02±2.03 | 45.23±1.42 | - | 12.49±0.49 | 6.37±0.26 | 2.04±0.05 | 0.57±0.09 | - |
1Kabata-pendias and pendias (2011)
2Al-Khafaji and Jalal (2020)
3Al-Heety et al.(2021)
4FAO/WHO (2007)
- Not detected
The maximum value of Cr was at Mahlat Al-Arab Alawlaa (4 ppm), whilst the minimum values detacted Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa (1 ppm). The high Cr content is associated with industrial emissions from the oil field around the research area. The main sources of Cu in the study area are oil oxidation, abrasion of tires on vehicles, and industrial waste, all of which are easily transported via air and deposited on plant leaves (Celik et al., 2005). The high concentrations of Fe found in all plant samples can be attributed to the fact that plant roots can take up large quantities of Fe from the soil and store it mostly in the leaves (Gholami et al., 2013).
Although zinc (Zn) is essential to all living things, the excess of Zn it can be toxic to plants, and too little can induce leaf development (Bucher and Schenk, 2000). The high concentrations of Zn were in normal range except in Al-Ameer, Mahlat Al-Arab Al-Awlaa, and Kut Al-Markaz, which were (41 ppm), (36 ppm), and (29 ppm), respectively, which are located close to a manufacturing facility and highway.
Overall, the data indicate that a variety of discrete inputs associated with human activities—including automobiles, industrial pollution, fossil fuel combustion, garages, and garbage dumps—had a significant impact on Al-Zubair flora.
Diagnostic ratios of PAHs are commonly used for determining the origin and source of PAHs in various environmental media (Bucheli et al., 2004; Yunker et al., 2002). Several researchers have found this method to be an effective way to identify the origins of PAHs at particular places, such as areas near point sources and the soil around industrial districts (Christensen and Bzdusek 2005). As a result, the diagnostic ratio was employed in this investigation as a suggestive method of providing information regarding the origins of PAHs. A ratio of Ant/ (Ant + Phe) 0.1 indicates petroleum, while a ratio greater than 0.1 indicates combustion dominance (Bucheli et al., 2004). Yunker et al. (2002) proposed that a Fla/(Fla + Pyr) ratio of 0.5 denotes a coal, wood, or grass combustion source, and a BaA/(BaA + Chr) ratio of 0.35 denotes a biomass combustion source. According to the literature (Mannino and Orecchio 2008), the value of Ind/(Ind + Bghip) >0.5 indicates grass, coal, or wood combustion sources, while a ratio between 0.20 and 0.50 implies fuel combustion sources (vehicles and crude oil). The ratio of specific PAHs was determined to identify potential sources. Typically, a value of one for high molecular weight (HMW) or one for low molecular weight (LMW) PAHs indicates that they are primarily derived from a petrogenic source, while a value of one for HMW/LMW PAHs indicates that they are primarily derived from a pyrogenic source (Soclo et al., 2000; Zakaria et al., 2002). A flu/pyr ratio of one indicates that the PAHs are petrogenic. Table 3 shows that the mean of LMW/HMW indicates the pyrogenic sources, as BaA/(BaA + Chr) indicates the petrognic sources, and Flu/Pyr shows the petrognic sources. The FlA/(FlA + Pyr) ratio indicates the presence of petrol emission sources. The results were compared with previous studies, Table 4.
Table 4 Total PAHs concentrations in the
Location | Total PAHs (ng/g1)-1 | Plant Species | References |
---|---|---|---|
Nanling Mountains | 646 | Hypnum plumaeformae | Liu et al. (2005) |
Szulborze Poland | 2373 | Hylocomium splenden | Wang et al. (2009b) |
Ny-Ålesund Arctic Circle | 217 | Moss | Orliński (2002) |
Liaoning, China Industrial area | 550 | Pinus thunbergii | Tian et al. (2009) |
Barcelona Natural | 75 | Pinus pinea | Ratola et al. (2006) |
Al-Zubair city (Current) study , Iraq | 602 | C.lancifolius | This study |
Bioaccumulation factor (BF) was determined as an indication of metal accumulation in plants. BF value greater than 1.0 indicates a high metal accumulation Dowdy & McKone (1997). BF was calculated to determine the amount of metals accumulated by the plant using the formula shown in equation 1.
where Cp is the concentration of metals in plants and CS is the concentration of metals in soil according to the concentration of metals in soil that was suggested by Kabata-Pendias (2011).
According to the results, the mean of heavy metal bioaccumulation in leaves follows the order: Co>Cd>Zn=As>Cu>Mn>Ni>Pb>Cr>Fe. Cobalt showed high bioaccumulation, indicating strong uptake of Co by plant leaves. Table show that Pb, Fe, and Cr showed low bioaccumulation (0.063), (0.037), and (0.057), respectively, indicating that this element has relatively low availability, while Ni, Zn, Mn, Cu, Cd, and As showed median bioaccumulation (0.125), (0.489), (0.128), (0.440), (0.746), and (0.484), respectively.
Table 5 Bioaccumulation factor values of heavy metals in
Sampling location | Pb | Ni | Zn | Mn | Fe | Cu | Cr | Co | Cd | As |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa | 0.043 | 0.071 | 0.338 | 0.104 | 0.022 | 0.294 | 0.028 | 4.5 | 1 | 0.2 |
Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa | 0.076 | 0.461 | 0.610 | 0.278 | 0.112 | 1 | 0.181 | 2.25 | 0.25 | 0.5 |
Kut Al-Markaz | 0.111 | 0.097 | 0.190 | 0.11 | 0.037 | 0.5 | 0.054 | 0.571 | 0.285 | 0.2 |
Al-Drahmia | 0.058 | 0.2 | 0.558 | 0.120 | 0.032 | 0.291 | 0.05 | 7 | 1 | 0.25 |
Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat | 0.045 | 0.090 | 0.041 | 0.264 | 0.041 | 0.555 | 0.035 | 2.5 | 1 | 1 |
Al-Ameer | 0.043 | 0.168 | 0.266 | 0.228 | 0.063 | 0.467 | 0.093 | 1.875 | 0.937 | 0.294 |
Mazraea | 0.037 | 0.074 | 0.148 | 0.053 | 0.013 | 0.136 | 0.029 | 2.333 | 0.333 | 0.333 |
Hay Al-Askary | 0.083 | 0.086 | 1.333 | 0.078 | 0.014 | 0.636 | 0.010 | 1.333 | 1 | 0.25 |
Near Al-Al-Shuaiba Refinery | 0.071 | 0.076 | 0.791 | 0.121 | 0.045 | 0.5 | 0.076 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.5 |
Main Waste Area | 0.032 | 0.157 | 0.818 | 0.128 | 0.027 | 0.5 | 0.047 | 1.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Al-Hussain | 0.1 | 0.034 | 0.461 | 0.054 | 0.013 | 0.333 | 0.027 | 2.5 | 0.5 | 1 |
Al-Shuaiba Houses | 0.053 | 0.037 | 0.559 | 0.048 | 0.023 | 0.243 | 0.046 | 0.937 | 0.937 | 0.416 |
Al-Thobat | 0.071 | 0.142 | 0.323 | 0.117 | 0.050 | 0.416 | 0.060 | 0.333 | 0.2 | 1 |
AL-Shuhdaa | 0.066 | 0.062 | 0.407 | 0.089 | 0.021 | 0.285 | 0.058 | 0.75 | 1.5 | 0.333 |
Min | 0.032 | 0.034 | 0.041 | 0.048 | 0.013 | 0.136 | 0.010 | 0.333 | 0.2 | 0.2 |
Max | 0.111 | 0.461 | 1.333 | 0.278 | 0.112 | 1 | 0.181 | 7 | 1.5 | 1 |
Mean | 0.063 | 0.125 | 0.489 | 0.128 | 0.037 | 0.44 | 0.057 | 2.063 | 0.746 | 0.484 |
High concentrations of Co, Ni, Cr, Fe, Cu and Cd were found in
Generally, plants of the study area are considered contaminated with heavy metals, effected by heavy traffic and vehicle exhaust emission. The leaves of
Firstly I thank and pray to Allah for what I have achieved so far. Secondly, I would like to gratefully acknowledge the help, support and encouragement of my supervisor, Assist. Prof. Dr. Sattar J. Al-Khafaji; I am extremely thankful for his suggestion of research project and his supervision and guidance through all aspects of this study, his ideas are estimable and their presence is indelible.
Econ. Environ. Geol. 2023; 56(1): 75-85
Published online February 28, 2023 https://doi.org/10.9719/EEG.2023.56.1.75
Copyright © THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY.
Sajjad W. Jaafar1,*, Sattar J.Al.Khafaji2
1Department of Geology, College of Science, University of Basrah ,Basrah, Iraq
2Department of Geology, College of Science, University of Basrah ,Basrah, Iraq
Correspondence to:*Sajadwafaa2@gmail.com
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided original work is properly cited.
The potential sources and spatial distribution of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were investigated in the leaf plants of Al-Zubair city. A total of 14 samples of
Keywords Al-Zubair , PAHs,
Gaseous emissions resulting from fuel combustion can be reduced through the use of technologies in the upstream stage of combustion, including what is applied after the combustion stage and before leaving the chimney
Avoid constructing oil refineries and refining facilities close to cities and densely populated areas
Conducting health and epidemiological studies of the population around the study area for the purpose of estimating the incidence of diseases carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic caused by toxic toxic elements
Pollution that resulting from cars is a big problem all over the world. (Deubner et al. 2004) note that advanced measurements of air quality such as regulatory and technical innovations like unleaded gasoline, catalytic converters, and fuel-efficient engines have often been negated by an increase in vehicle traffic. Numerous pollutants are contaminating the environment near roads (Unger and Prinz 1997). Fuels, gasoline tank walls, engine components, vehicle components, catalytic converters, tires, brake pads, and road surface materials can all include heavy metals. Incomplete fuel combustion and abrasion of road surfaces both release polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) into the environment (Unger and Prinz 1997).
In urban areas, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are generated from a variety of sources, including vehicle emissions, fossil fuel combustion, painting, wood and garbage burning, solvent application, and asphalt pavement operations at small factories and workshops (Essumang et al., 2006). Changes in weather patterns and the chemical and physical properties of each PAHs contribute to modifications to the compounds' overall concentrations. Vapor and/or particle-bound PAHs are found in the air and can be deposited on vegetation, trees, soil, and water through both wet and dry deposition. Plants absorb PAHs in the vapor phase through stomata or outer circular lamellae, whereas particle-bound PAHs have accumulated on the leaf surface (Franzaring, 1997). Anthracene is a good example of a PAH that can cross the epicuticle wax and leaf cuticle to enter the cytoplasm of the epidermal cells (Wild et al., 2004). This suggests that the accumulated PAHs are swiftly transferred to the wax layer of the leaf. PAHs are a type of organic pollutant that may be found just about anywhere but are more prevalent in urban and industrial settings due to the prevalence of waste incineration, vehicle traffic, and residential heating systems. Ratios of the distinct PAHs have been proposed to differentiate between different origins with using ratio of PAHs in Table 3. (Yunker et al., 2002; Ravindra et al., 2008), although it is generally accepted that PAHs can arise from petrogenic, pyrolitic, and diagenetic sources. Al-Zubair cities have rapid population growth, coupled with the pollution from nearby oil and gas fields, electrical, petrochemical, and fertilizer sector plants, has led to the deposition of substantial volumes of atmospheric pollution in recent years. The primary goal of this research is to assess the pollution in Al-Zubair city by using the C. lancefolius leaves and identifying their content and source of heavy metals and PAHs as an indicator for pollution.
Table 3 . PAHs diagnostic ratio analysis for Al-Zubair
PAH ratios | Ant/(Phe+Ant) | BaA/BaA+Chr) | In/(In+BghiP) | Flu/Pyr | FlA/FlA+Pyr) | ΣLMW/ΣHMW | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boundary values | Petrogenic | <0.1 | <0.2 | <0.2 | <1 | <0.5 | >1 |
Pyrogenic | >0.1 | >0.2 | >0.5 | >1 | >0.5 | <1 | |
Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0 | |
Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa | ND | ND | 0.8272 | 0.0183 | 0.0179 | 0 | |
Kut Al-Markaz | ND | 0.2008 | 0.8346 | 0.0364 | 0.0351 | 0.0055 | |
Al-Drahmia | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0 | |
Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat | ND | 0.1568 | ND | ND | ND | 0.0031 | |
Al-Ameer | ND | 0.4170 | 0.3952 | 0.0318 | 0.0109 | 0.0154 | |
Mazraea | ND | ND | 0.1813 | 0.0110 | 0.0109 | 0.0214 | |
Hay Al-Askary | ND | ND | ND | 0.1809 | 0.1532 | 0 | |
Near Al-Al-Shuaiba Refinery | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0 | |
Main Waste Area | ND | ND | 0.9575 | ND | ND | 0.0198 | |
Al-Hussain | ND | 0.5666 | 0.3088 | 0.1394 | 0.1223 | 0 | |
Al-Thobat | ND | 0.2143 | 0.9217 | 0.0017 | 0.0017 | 0.0015 | |
AL-Shuhdaa | ND | ND | 0.3170 | 0.0859 | 0.0791 | 0 | |
Mean | ND | 0.1196 | 0.3648 | 0.0389 | 0.0332 | 0.0051 | |
ND-Not detected |
The study area is located in the Al-Zubair district, it is located within a longitude (47° 40'-47° 44' E) and a latitude (30° 20'-30° 24' N). the spatial boundaries of the area at the southwestern part of Basrah Governorate, west of Safwan sub-district, and south of Umm Qasr and Khor Al-Zubair sub-district, with an area of about 1134 km², it is surrounded by many oil and gas fields, State Company for Petrochemical Industry and Fertilizer industry plants. The city consists of (23) residential neighborhoods Fig. 1, (Al Zubair Municipality Directorate, 2015).
Leave plants samples were taken from 14 different stations namly; (Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa, Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa, Kut Al-Markaz, Al-Drahmia, Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat, Al-Ameer, Mazraea, Hay Al-Askary, Near Al-Al-Shuaiba Refinery, Main Waste Area, Al-Hussain, Al-Shuaiba Houses, Al-Thobat and AL-Shuhdaa, Fig. 1.
The information of each sample was written on the plastic bags and then transferred to the laboratory. Samples were collected under stable weather conditions during September 2021, fieldwork was carried out in the urban district inside of AL-Zubair city include green space, open space traffic roadsides and industrial area The samples were taken by scissors and the highest height was 2 meters. A number of open leaves were taken and in the direct direction of the road and the oil facility. The old parts were taken, not the new shoots. They were taken to the laboratory to dry in the atmosphere of the laboratory. Then the leaves were grinded without washing and transferred to the analysis laboratory at the University of Basrah, College of Marine Sciences, Department of Chemistry.
Sixteen PAHs specified were extracted by using Soxhlet apparatus according to method of Wang et al. (2011), including Benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(123cd)pyrene and dibenzo(ah)anthracene Naphthalene (NAP), 2-Methylnaphthalne (2-METH), Acenapthylene (ACY), Acenapthene (ACE), Flourene (FLU), Phenanthrene (PHE), Anthracene (ANT), Flouranthene (FLUA), Pyrene (PYR), Benz[a] anthracene (B[a]A), Chrysene (CHR), Benzo[b]flouranthene (B[b]F), Benzo[k]flouranthene (B[k]F), Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), Benzo[ghi]perylene (B[ghi]P), Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyren (Ind p). then PAHs compounds were identified in the laboratories of Basrah oil company by using 7890 Agilent capillary Gas Chromatography (GC), For heavy metals analysis, the sample was grinded without washing and transferred to the analysis laboratory. Ten of heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Ni, Mn, Fe, Co, Cd, Cu, Cr and AS) were determined in Conocarpus lancifolius using Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) in Iran.
The results showed that the mean values for PAHs compounds in C. lancefolius leaves have the following orders: Pyr(498.07 ng/g)>Indo(26.73 ng/g)>Ben(A)Ant(23.13 ng/g)>Ben(15.84 ng/g)>Ben(A)(13.10 ng/g)>Flu(12.67 ng/g)>Ben(K)(3.82 ng/g)>Chr(3.14 ng/g). The mean content of LMW PAHs is 3.7 ng/g, whereas the mean content of HMW PAHs is 598.98 ng/g (Table 1), (Fig. 2, 3). The total mean of carcinogenic aromatic compound concentration is 544.25 ng/g. The maximum total PAHs content was recorded at Kut Al-Markaz (2034.56 ng/g), whereas the minimum value was recorded at Near Al-Shuaiba Refinery (20.03 ng/g). The PAHs accumulation in C. lancefolius leaves was influenced by the traffic volume according to results at the sampling location and the high concentration of PAHs emitted by vehicles on the road.
Table 1 . PAHs concentration in
Stations | Aromatic ring | Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa | Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa | Kut Al-Markaz | Al-Drahmia | Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat | Al-Ameer | Mazraea | Hay Al-Askary | Near Al-Shuaiba Refinery | Main Waste Area | Al-Hussain | Al-Thobat | AL-Shuhdaa | Mean | Min | Max | AC | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PAHS Compounds | |||||||||||||||||||
LMW | NAPHTHALENE | 2 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0 | 0 | 0 | ND |
2-METHYLNAPHTHALNE | 2 | ND | ND | 2.42 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 5.76 | ND | ND | ND | 0.62 | 2.42 | 5.76 | ND | |
ACENAPHTHYENE | 3 | ND | ND | 6.42 | ND | ND | 1.96 | ND | ND | ND | 2.69 | ND | ND | ND | 0.85 | 1.96 | 6.42 | ND | |
ACENAPHTHNEN | 3 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 3.43 | 2.97 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.49 | 2.97 | 3.43 | ND | |
FLUORENE | 3 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 5.38 | 2.63 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.61 | 2.63 | 5.38 | ND | |
PHENANTHRENE | 3 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 1.99 | ND | 0.15 | 1.99 | 1.99 | ND | |
ANTHRACENE | 3 | ND | ND | 2.33 | ND | 2.24 | 6.05 | 2.94 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 1.04 | 2.24 | 6.05 | ND | |
HMW | FLUORANTHENE | 4 | ND | 9.27 | 62.12 | ND | ND | 24.51 | 3.95 | 4.25 | ND | ND | 32.07 | 2.19 | 26.36 | 12.67 | 2.19 | 62.12 | 9.27 |
PYRENE | 4 | 265.28 | 506.23 | 1702.91 | 33.49 | 655.94 | 770.71 | 356.39 | 23.50 | ND | 385.40 | 229.97 | 1238.50 | 306.59 | 498.07 | 23.50 | 1702.91 | 506.23 | |
CHRYSENE | 4 | ND | ND | 8.43 | ND | 8.79 | 4.95 | ND | ND | ND | ND | 7.61 | 11.09 | ND | 3.14 | 4.95 | 11.09 | ND | |
BENZO(A)ANTHRACENE | 4 | ND | ND | 2.12 | ND | 1.63 | 3.54 | 13.15 | 255.12 | 12.21 | ND | 9.96 | 3.02 | ND | 23.13 | 1.63 | 255.12 | ND | |
BENZO(B)FLUORANTHENE | 5 | ND | ND | 7.49 | ND | 10.52 | 2.95 | ND | ND | 4.08 | ND | 1.86 | ND | 3.66 | 2.35 | 1.86 | 10.52 | ND | |
BENZO(K)FLUORANTHENE | 5 | 1.03 | 2.02 | 1.23 | ND | 4.60 | 24.83 | ND | 2.72 | 3.72 | 2.05 | 2.26 | 2.83 | 2.41 | 3.82 | 1.03 | 24.83 | 2.02 | |
BENZO(A) PYRENE | 5 | ND | ND | 24.07 | ND | 8.82 | 109.80 | 9.46 | 2.84 | ND | ND | 3.07 | 3.31 | 8.98 | 13.10 | 2.84 | 109.80 | ND | |
INDENO(1,2,3-CD)PYRENE+DIBENZO(A,H)ANTHRACENE | 6 | ND | 15.40 | 179.43 | 5.55 | 16..48 | 59.38 | 3.03 | 5.69 | ND | 36.46 | 4.81 | 30.48 | 7.24 | 26.73 | 3.03 | 179.43 | 15.40 | |
BENZO(G,H,I)PERYLENE | 6 | 11.28 | 3.21 | 35.54 | ND | 21.15 | 90.83 | 13.72 | ND | ND | 1.61 | 10.77 | 2.58 | 15.60 | 15.87 | 1.61 | 90.83 | 3.21 | |
ΣLMW | 0 | 0 | 11.17 | 0 | 2.24 | 16.84 | 8.5611 | 0 | 0 | 8.45 | 0 | 1.99 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 11.17 | |||
ΣHMW | 277.59 | 536.15 | 2023.39 | 39.04 | 711.48 | 1091.55 | 399.73 | 294.14 | 20.03 | 425.54 | 302.42 | 1294.04 | 370.87 | 277.59 | 536.15 | 2023.39 | |||
ΣCar | 266.31 | 517.53 | 1786.66 | 33.49 | 683.74 | 837.58 | 376.45 | 285.60 | 20.03 | 387.45 | 283.76 | 1257.65 | 339.03 | 266.31 | 517.53 | 1786.66 | |||
PAHs | 277.59 | 536.15 | 2034.56 | 39.04 | 713.72 | 1108.39 | 408.29 | 294.14 | 20.03 | 433.99 | 302.42 | 1296.03 | 370.87 | ΣPAHs | 277.59 | 536.15 |
*Σ16-PAHs: means concentration of 16 kinds of PAHs. *ΣCar-PAH: means concentrations of carcinogenic PAHs, including Benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(123cd)pyrene and dibenzo(ah)anthracene (USEPA 2002b). ΣLMW sum of 7 Low Molecular Weight Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons :Naphthalene (NAP), 2-Methylnaphthalne (2-METH), Acenapthylene (ACY), Acenapthene (ACE), Flourene (FLU), Phenanthrene (PHE), Anthracene (ANT), Flouranthene, ΣHMW sum of 9 High Molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons : (FLUA), Pyrene (PYR), Benz[a]anthracene (B[a]A), Chrysene (CHR), Benzo[b]flouranthene (B[b]F), Benzo[k]flouranthene (B[k]F), Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) Benzo[ghi]perylene (B[ghi]P), Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyren (Ind p). ND, not detected. ΣCar sum of 7 Carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons:BaA,chr,BbF,BkF,BaP,InP and BghiP Ac: Acceptable concentration Netherlands Ministry of Housing and environment (1994).
One major and effective uptake method in plant leaves is the inhalation of volatile PAHs from the environment (Simonich and Hites 1994a). Vapor-phase PAHs are typically taken in through the leaf cuticle rather than through the stomata (Barber et al., 2004). After penetrating the cuticle, these PAHs may be taken into the body. At room temperature, low molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (LMW PAHs) with fewer than four rings are more likely to condense as a vapor and deposit on plants in the troposphere. Subsequently, the deposited PAHs could enter cells via diffusion.
Heavy metal concentrations in
Table 2 . Heavy metal concentration (ppm) in conocarpus lancifolius leaves of study area and comparison with other studies.
Sample location | Pb | Ni | Zn | Mn | Fe | Cu | Cr | Co | Cd | As |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa | 1 | 2 | 21 | 16 | 208 | 5 | 1 | 0.9 | 0.2 | <1 |
Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa | 2 | 6 | 36 | 32 | 709 | 11 | 4 | 0.9 | 0.1 | <1 |
Kut Al-Markaz | 3 | 4 | 29 | 22 | 562 | 11 | 3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | <1 |
Al-Drahmia | 1 | 3 | 24 | 13 | 238 | 14 | 1 | 0.7 | 0.1 | <1 |
Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat | 1 | 2 | 19 | 27 | 300 | 5 | 1 | 0.5 | 0.2 | <1 |
Al-Ameer | 1 | 4 | 41 | 31 | 576 | 10 | 3 | 0.6 | 0.3 | <1 |
Mazraea | 1 | 2 | 15 | 16 | 125 | 6 | 1 | 0.7 | 0.1 | <1 |
Hay Al-Askary | 1 | 4 | 16 | 19 | 200 | 7 | 1 | 0.4 | 0.3 | <1 |
Near Al-Al-Shuaiba Refinery | 1 | 1 | 19 | 12 | 395 | 5 | 2 | 0.2 | 0.4 | <1 |
Main Waste Area | 1 | 3 | 9 | 29 | 170 | 4 | 1 | 0.6 | 0.1 | <1 |
Al-Hussain | 1 | 1 | 6 | 9 | 112 | 3 | 1 | 0.5 | 0.2 | <1 |
Al-Shuaiba Houses | 1 | 1 | 18 | 10 | 216 | 4 | 2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | <1 |
Al-Thobat | 1 | 3 | 11 | 14 | 393 | 5 | 2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | <1 |
AL-Shuhdaa | 1 | 1 | 11 | 8 | 112 | 4 | 1 | 0.3 | 0.3 | <1 |
Min | 1 | 1 | 11 | 8 | 112 | 4 | 1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | <1 |
Max | 3 | 6 | 41 | 32 | 709 | 14 | 4 | 0.9 | 0.4 | <1 |
Mean | 1.21 | 2.64 | 19.64 | 18.42 | 308.28 | 6.71 | 1.71 | 0.50 | 0.20 | <1 |
1Normal Values | 5-10 | 0.1-5 | 27-150 | 30-300 | 20-100 | 5-30 | 0.1-0.5 | 0.02-1 | 0.05-2 | 1-1.7 |
2 Basrah city | 3.25 | 20.61 | 32.64 | 22.56 | 266.54 | 13.96 | 18.52 | 1.16 | 0.51 | 2.36 |
3Ramadi city | 6.99±0.44 | 7.71±0.18 | 62.95±2.96 | 49.64±3.23 | - | 14.03±0.84 | 7.26±0.41 | 2.13±0.08 | 0.93±0.18 | - |
4Permissible value | 6.49±0.21 | 7.55±0.19 | 55.02±2.03 | 45.23±1.42 | - | 12.49±0.49 | 6.37±0.26 | 2.04±0.05 | 0.57±0.09 | - |
1Kabata-pendias and pendias (2011).
2Al-Khafaji and Jalal (2020).
3Al-Heety et al.(2021).
4FAO/WHO (2007).
- Not detected.
The maximum value of Cr was at Mahlat Al-Arab Alawlaa (4 ppm), whilst the minimum values detacted Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa (1 ppm). The high Cr content is associated with industrial emissions from the oil field around the research area. The main sources of Cu in the study area are oil oxidation, abrasion of tires on vehicles, and industrial waste, all of which are easily transported via air and deposited on plant leaves (Celik et al., 2005). The high concentrations of Fe found in all plant samples can be attributed to the fact that plant roots can take up large quantities of Fe from the soil and store it mostly in the leaves (Gholami et al., 2013).
Although zinc (Zn) is essential to all living things, the excess of Zn it can be toxic to plants, and too little can induce leaf development (Bucher and Schenk, 2000). The high concentrations of Zn were in normal range except in Al-Ameer, Mahlat Al-Arab Al-Awlaa, and Kut Al-Markaz, which were (41 ppm), (36 ppm), and (29 ppm), respectively, which are located close to a manufacturing facility and highway.
Overall, the data indicate that a variety of discrete inputs associated with human activities—including automobiles, industrial pollution, fossil fuel combustion, garages, and garbage dumps—had a significant impact on Al-Zubair flora.
Diagnostic ratios of PAHs are commonly used for determining the origin and source of PAHs in various environmental media (Bucheli et al., 2004; Yunker et al., 2002). Several researchers have found this method to be an effective way to identify the origins of PAHs at particular places, such as areas near point sources and the soil around industrial districts (Christensen and Bzdusek 2005). As a result, the diagnostic ratio was employed in this investigation as a suggestive method of providing information regarding the origins of PAHs. A ratio of Ant/ (Ant + Phe) 0.1 indicates petroleum, while a ratio greater than 0.1 indicates combustion dominance (Bucheli et al., 2004). Yunker et al. (2002) proposed that a Fla/(Fla + Pyr) ratio of 0.5 denotes a coal, wood, or grass combustion source, and a BaA/(BaA + Chr) ratio of 0.35 denotes a biomass combustion source. According to the literature (Mannino and Orecchio 2008), the value of Ind/(Ind + Bghip) >0.5 indicates grass, coal, or wood combustion sources, while a ratio between 0.20 and 0.50 implies fuel combustion sources (vehicles and crude oil). The ratio of specific PAHs was determined to identify potential sources. Typically, a value of one for high molecular weight (HMW) or one for low molecular weight (LMW) PAHs indicates that they are primarily derived from a petrogenic source, while a value of one for HMW/LMW PAHs indicates that they are primarily derived from a pyrogenic source (Soclo et al., 2000; Zakaria et al., 2002). A flu/pyr ratio of one indicates that the PAHs are petrogenic. Table 3 shows that the mean of LMW/HMW indicates the pyrogenic sources, as BaA/(BaA + Chr) indicates the petrognic sources, and Flu/Pyr shows the petrognic sources. The FlA/(FlA + Pyr) ratio indicates the presence of petrol emission sources. The results were compared with previous studies, Table 4.
Table 4 . Total PAHs concentrations in the
Location | Total PAHs (ng/g1)-1 | Plant Species | References |
---|---|---|---|
Nanling Mountains | 646 | Hypnum plumaeformae | Liu et al. (2005) |
Szulborze Poland | 2373 | Hylocomium splenden | Wang et al. (2009b) |
Ny-Ålesund Arctic Circle | 217 | Moss | Orliński (2002) |
Liaoning, China Industrial area | 550 | Pinus thunbergii | Tian et al. (2009) |
Barcelona Natural | 75 | Pinus pinea | Ratola et al. (2006) |
Al-Zubair city (Current) study , Iraq | 602 | C.lancifolius | This study |
Bioaccumulation factor (BF) was determined as an indication of metal accumulation in plants. BF value greater than 1.0 indicates a high metal accumulation Dowdy & McKone (1997). BF was calculated to determine the amount of metals accumulated by the plant using the formula shown in equation 1.
where Cp is the concentration of metals in plants and CS is the concentration of metals in soil according to the concentration of metals in soil that was suggested by Kabata-Pendias (2011).
According to the results, the mean of heavy metal bioaccumulation in leaves follows the order: Co>Cd>Zn=As>Cu>Mn>Ni>Pb>Cr>Fe. Cobalt showed high bioaccumulation, indicating strong uptake of Co by plant leaves. Table show that Pb, Fe, and Cr showed low bioaccumulation (0.063), (0.037), and (0.057), respectively, indicating that this element has relatively low availability, while Ni, Zn, Mn, Cu, Cd, and As showed median bioaccumulation (0.125), (0.489), (0.128), (0.440), (0.746), and (0.484), respectively.
Table 5 . Bioaccumulation factor values of heavy metals in
Sampling location | Pb | Ni | Zn | Mn | Fe | Cu | Cr | Co | Cd | As |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa | 0.043 | 0.071 | 0.338 | 0.104 | 0.022 | 0.294 | 0.028 | 4.5 | 1 | 0.2 |
Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa | 0.076 | 0.461 | 0.610 | 0.278 | 0.112 | 1 | 0.181 | 2.25 | 0.25 | 0.5 |
Kut Al-Markaz | 0.111 | 0.097 | 0.190 | 0.11 | 0.037 | 0.5 | 0.054 | 0.571 | 0.285 | 0.2 |
Al-Drahmia | 0.058 | 0.2 | 0.558 | 0.120 | 0.032 | 0.291 | 0.05 | 7 | 1 | 0.25 |
Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat | 0.045 | 0.090 | 0.041 | 0.264 | 0.041 | 0.555 | 0.035 | 2.5 | 1 | 1 |
Al-Ameer | 0.043 | 0.168 | 0.266 | 0.228 | 0.063 | 0.467 | 0.093 | 1.875 | 0.937 | 0.294 |
Mazraea | 0.037 | 0.074 | 0.148 | 0.053 | 0.013 | 0.136 | 0.029 | 2.333 | 0.333 | 0.333 |
Hay Al-Askary | 0.083 | 0.086 | 1.333 | 0.078 | 0.014 | 0.636 | 0.010 | 1.333 | 1 | 0.25 |
Near Al-Al-Shuaiba Refinery | 0.071 | 0.076 | 0.791 | 0.121 | 0.045 | 0.5 | 0.076 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.5 |
Main Waste Area | 0.032 | 0.157 | 0.818 | 0.128 | 0.027 | 0.5 | 0.047 | 1.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Al-Hussain | 0.1 | 0.034 | 0.461 | 0.054 | 0.013 | 0.333 | 0.027 | 2.5 | 0.5 | 1 |
Al-Shuaiba Houses | 0.053 | 0.037 | 0.559 | 0.048 | 0.023 | 0.243 | 0.046 | 0.937 | 0.937 | 0.416 |
Al-Thobat | 0.071 | 0.142 | 0.323 | 0.117 | 0.050 | 0.416 | 0.060 | 0.333 | 0.2 | 1 |
AL-Shuhdaa | 0.066 | 0.062 | 0.407 | 0.089 | 0.021 | 0.285 | 0.058 | 0.75 | 1.5 | 0.333 |
Min | 0.032 | 0.034 | 0.041 | 0.048 | 0.013 | 0.136 | 0.010 | 0.333 | 0.2 | 0.2 |
Max | 0.111 | 0.461 | 1.333 | 0.278 | 0.112 | 1 | 0.181 | 7 | 1.5 | 1 |
Mean | 0.063 | 0.125 | 0.489 | 0.128 | 0.037 | 0.44 | 0.057 | 2.063 | 0.746 | 0.484 |
High concentrations of Co, Ni, Cr, Fe, Cu and Cd were found in
Generally, plants of the study area are considered contaminated with heavy metals, effected by heavy traffic and vehicle exhaust emission. The leaves of
Firstly I thank and pray to Allah for what I have achieved so far. Secondly, I would like to gratefully acknowledge the help, support and encouragement of my supervisor, Assist. Prof. Dr. Sattar J. Al-Khafaji; I am extremely thankful for his suggestion of research project and his supervision and guidance through all aspects of this study, his ideas are estimable and their presence is indelible.
Table 1 . PAHs concentration in
Stations | Aromatic ring | Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa | Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa | Kut Al-Markaz | Al-Drahmia | Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat | Al-Ameer | Mazraea | Hay Al-Askary | Near Al-Shuaiba Refinery | Main Waste Area | Al-Hussain | Al-Thobat | AL-Shuhdaa | Mean | Min | Max | AC | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PAHS Compounds | |||||||||||||||||||
LMW | NAPHTHALENE | 2 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0 | 0 | 0 | ND |
2-METHYLNAPHTHALNE | 2 | ND | ND | 2.42 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 5.76 | ND | ND | ND | 0.62 | 2.42 | 5.76 | ND | |
ACENAPHTHYENE | 3 | ND | ND | 6.42 | ND | ND | 1.96 | ND | ND | ND | 2.69 | ND | ND | ND | 0.85 | 1.96 | 6.42 | ND | |
ACENAPHTHNEN | 3 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 3.43 | 2.97 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.49 | 2.97 | 3.43 | ND | |
FLUORENE | 3 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 5.38 | 2.63 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.61 | 2.63 | 5.38 | ND | |
PHENANTHRENE | 3 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 1.99 | ND | 0.15 | 1.99 | 1.99 | ND | |
ANTHRACENE | 3 | ND | ND | 2.33 | ND | 2.24 | 6.05 | 2.94 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 1.04 | 2.24 | 6.05 | ND | |
HMW | FLUORANTHENE | 4 | ND | 9.27 | 62.12 | ND | ND | 24.51 | 3.95 | 4.25 | ND | ND | 32.07 | 2.19 | 26.36 | 12.67 | 2.19 | 62.12 | 9.27 |
PYRENE | 4 | 265.28 | 506.23 | 1702.91 | 33.49 | 655.94 | 770.71 | 356.39 | 23.50 | ND | 385.40 | 229.97 | 1238.50 | 306.59 | 498.07 | 23.50 | 1702.91 | 506.23 | |
CHRYSENE | 4 | ND | ND | 8.43 | ND | 8.79 | 4.95 | ND | ND | ND | ND | 7.61 | 11.09 | ND | 3.14 | 4.95 | 11.09 | ND | |
BENZO(A)ANTHRACENE | 4 | ND | ND | 2.12 | ND | 1.63 | 3.54 | 13.15 | 255.12 | 12.21 | ND | 9.96 | 3.02 | ND | 23.13 | 1.63 | 255.12 | ND | |
BENZO(B)FLUORANTHENE | 5 | ND | ND | 7.49 | ND | 10.52 | 2.95 | ND | ND | 4.08 | ND | 1.86 | ND | 3.66 | 2.35 | 1.86 | 10.52 | ND | |
BENZO(K)FLUORANTHENE | 5 | 1.03 | 2.02 | 1.23 | ND | 4.60 | 24.83 | ND | 2.72 | 3.72 | 2.05 | 2.26 | 2.83 | 2.41 | 3.82 | 1.03 | 24.83 | 2.02 | |
BENZO(A) PYRENE | 5 | ND | ND | 24.07 | ND | 8.82 | 109.80 | 9.46 | 2.84 | ND | ND | 3.07 | 3.31 | 8.98 | 13.10 | 2.84 | 109.80 | ND | |
INDENO(1,2,3-CD)PYRENE+DIBENZO(A,H)ANTHRACENE | 6 | ND | 15.40 | 179.43 | 5.55 | 16..48 | 59.38 | 3.03 | 5.69 | ND | 36.46 | 4.81 | 30.48 | 7.24 | 26.73 | 3.03 | 179.43 | 15.40 | |
BENZO(G,H,I)PERYLENE | 6 | 11.28 | 3.21 | 35.54 | ND | 21.15 | 90.83 | 13.72 | ND | ND | 1.61 | 10.77 | 2.58 | 15.60 | 15.87 | 1.61 | 90.83 | 3.21 | |
ΣLMW | 0 | 0 | 11.17 | 0 | 2.24 | 16.84 | 8.5611 | 0 | 0 | 8.45 | 0 | 1.99 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 11.17 | |||
ΣHMW | 277.59 | 536.15 | 2023.39 | 39.04 | 711.48 | 1091.55 | 399.73 | 294.14 | 20.03 | 425.54 | 302.42 | 1294.04 | 370.87 | 277.59 | 536.15 | 2023.39 | |||
ΣCar | 266.31 | 517.53 | 1786.66 | 33.49 | 683.74 | 837.58 | 376.45 | 285.60 | 20.03 | 387.45 | 283.76 | 1257.65 | 339.03 | 266.31 | 517.53 | 1786.66 | |||
PAHs | 277.59 | 536.15 | 2034.56 | 39.04 | 713.72 | 1108.39 | 408.29 | 294.14 | 20.03 | 433.99 | 302.42 | 1296.03 | 370.87 | ΣPAHs | 277.59 | 536.15 |
*Σ16-PAHs: means concentration of 16 kinds of PAHs. *ΣCar-PAH: means concentrations of carcinogenic PAHs, including Benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(123cd)pyrene and dibenzo(ah)anthracene (USEPA 2002b). ΣLMW sum of 7 Low Molecular Weight Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons :Naphthalene (NAP), 2-Methylnaphthalne (2-METH), Acenapthylene (ACY), Acenapthene (ACE), Flourene (FLU), Phenanthrene (PHE), Anthracene (ANT), Flouranthene, ΣHMW sum of 9 High Molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons : (FLUA), Pyrene (PYR), Benz[a]anthracene (B[a]A), Chrysene (CHR), Benzo[b]flouranthene (B[b]F), Benzo[k]flouranthene (B[k]F), Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) Benzo[ghi]perylene (B[ghi]P), Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyren (Ind p). ND, not detected. ΣCar sum of 7 Carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons:BaA,chr,BbF,BkF,BaP,InP and BghiP Ac: Acceptable concentration Netherlands Ministry of Housing and environment (1994).
Table 2 . Heavy metal concentration (ppm) in conocarpus lancifolius leaves of study area and comparison with other studies.
Sample location | Pb | Ni | Zn | Mn | Fe | Cu | Cr | Co | Cd | As |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa | 1 | 2 | 21 | 16 | 208 | 5 | 1 | 0.9 | 0.2 | <1 |
Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa | 2 | 6 | 36 | 32 | 709 | 11 | 4 | 0.9 | 0.1 | <1 |
Kut Al-Markaz | 3 | 4 | 29 | 22 | 562 | 11 | 3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | <1 |
Al-Drahmia | 1 | 3 | 24 | 13 | 238 | 14 | 1 | 0.7 | 0.1 | <1 |
Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat | 1 | 2 | 19 | 27 | 300 | 5 | 1 | 0.5 | 0.2 | <1 |
Al-Ameer | 1 | 4 | 41 | 31 | 576 | 10 | 3 | 0.6 | 0.3 | <1 |
Mazraea | 1 | 2 | 15 | 16 | 125 | 6 | 1 | 0.7 | 0.1 | <1 |
Hay Al-Askary | 1 | 4 | 16 | 19 | 200 | 7 | 1 | 0.4 | 0.3 | <1 |
Near Al-Al-Shuaiba Refinery | 1 | 1 | 19 | 12 | 395 | 5 | 2 | 0.2 | 0.4 | <1 |
Main Waste Area | 1 | 3 | 9 | 29 | 170 | 4 | 1 | 0.6 | 0.1 | <1 |
Al-Hussain | 1 | 1 | 6 | 9 | 112 | 3 | 1 | 0.5 | 0.2 | <1 |
Al-Shuaiba Houses | 1 | 1 | 18 | 10 | 216 | 4 | 2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | <1 |
Al-Thobat | 1 | 3 | 11 | 14 | 393 | 5 | 2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | <1 |
AL-Shuhdaa | 1 | 1 | 11 | 8 | 112 | 4 | 1 | 0.3 | 0.3 | <1 |
Min | 1 | 1 | 11 | 8 | 112 | 4 | 1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | <1 |
Max | 3 | 6 | 41 | 32 | 709 | 14 | 4 | 0.9 | 0.4 | <1 |
Mean | 1.21 | 2.64 | 19.64 | 18.42 | 308.28 | 6.71 | 1.71 | 0.50 | 0.20 | <1 |
1Normal Values | 5-10 | 0.1-5 | 27-150 | 30-300 | 20-100 | 5-30 | 0.1-0.5 | 0.02-1 | 0.05-2 | 1-1.7 |
2 Basrah city | 3.25 | 20.61 | 32.64 | 22.56 | 266.54 | 13.96 | 18.52 | 1.16 | 0.51 | 2.36 |
3Ramadi city | 6.99±0.44 | 7.71±0.18 | 62.95±2.96 | 49.64±3.23 | - | 14.03±0.84 | 7.26±0.41 | 2.13±0.08 | 0.93±0.18 | - |
4Permissible value | 6.49±0.21 | 7.55±0.19 | 55.02±2.03 | 45.23±1.42 | - | 12.49±0.49 | 6.37±0.26 | 2.04±0.05 | 0.57±0.09 | - |
1Kabata-pendias and pendias (2011).
2Al-Khafaji and Jalal (2020).
3Al-Heety et al.(2021).
4FAO/WHO (2007).
- Not detected.
Table 3 . PAHs diagnostic ratio analysis for Al-Zubair
PAH ratios | Ant/(Phe+Ant) | BaA/BaA+Chr) | In/(In+BghiP) | Flu/Pyr | FlA/FlA+Pyr) | ΣLMW/ΣHMW | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boundary values | Petrogenic | <0.1 | <0.2 | <0.2 | <1 | <0.5 | >1 |
Pyrogenic | >0.1 | >0.2 | >0.5 | >1 | >0.5 | <1 | |
Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0 | |
Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa | ND | ND | 0.8272 | 0.0183 | 0.0179 | 0 | |
Kut Al-Markaz | ND | 0.2008 | 0.8346 | 0.0364 | 0.0351 | 0.0055 | |
Al-Drahmia | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0 | |
Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat | ND | 0.1568 | ND | ND | ND | 0.0031 | |
Al-Ameer | ND | 0.4170 | 0.3952 | 0.0318 | 0.0109 | 0.0154 | |
Mazraea | ND | ND | 0.1813 | 0.0110 | 0.0109 | 0.0214 | |
Hay Al-Askary | ND | ND | ND | 0.1809 | 0.1532 | 0 | |
Near Al-Al-Shuaiba Refinery | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0 | |
Main Waste Area | ND | ND | 0.9575 | ND | ND | 0.0198 | |
Al-Hussain | ND | 0.5666 | 0.3088 | 0.1394 | 0.1223 | 0 | |
Al-Thobat | ND | 0.2143 | 0.9217 | 0.0017 | 0.0017 | 0.0015 | |
AL-Shuhdaa | ND | ND | 0.3170 | 0.0859 | 0.0791 | 0 | |
Mean | ND | 0.1196 | 0.3648 | 0.0389 | 0.0332 | 0.0051 | |
ND-Not detected |
Table 4 . Total PAHs concentrations in the
Location | Total PAHs (ng/g1)-1 | Plant Species | References |
---|---|---|---|
Nanling Mountains | 646 | Hypnum plumaeformae | Liu et al. (2005) |
Szulborze Poland | 2373 | Hylocomium splenden | Wang et al. (2009b) |
Ny-Ålesund Arctic Circle | 217 | Moss | Orliński (2002) |
Liaoning, China Industrial area | 550 | Pinus thunbergii | Tian et al. (2009) |
Barcelona Natural | 75 | Pinus pinea | Ratola et al. (2006) |
Al-Zubair city (Current) study , Iraq | 602 | C.lancifolius | This study |
Table 5 . Bioaccumulation factor values of heavy metals in
Sampling location | Pb | Ni | Zn | Mn | Fe | Cu | Cr | Co | Cd | As |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al-Jumhuria Al-awlaa | 0.043 | 0.071 | 0.338 | 0.104 | 0.022 | 0.294 | 0.028 | 4.5 | 1 | 0.2 |
Mahlat Al-Arab Al-awlaa | 0.076 | 0.461 | 0.610 | 0.278 | 0.112 | 1 | 0.181 | 2.25 | 0.25 | 0.5 |
Kut Al-Markaz | 0.111 | 0.097 | 0.190 | 0.11 | 0.037 | 0.5 | 0.054 | 0.571 | 0.285 | 0.2 |
Al-Drahmia | 0.058 | 0.2 | 0.558 | 0.120 | 0.032 | 0.291 | 0.05 | 7 | 1 | 0.25 |
Al-Faraha and Al-Thoahrat | 0.045 | 0.090 | 0.041 | 0.264 | 0.041 | 0.555 | 0.035 | 2.5 | 1 | 1 |
Al-Ameer | 0.043 | 0.168 | 0.266 | 0.228 | 0.063 | 0.467 | 0.093 | 1.875 | 0.937 | 0.294 |
Mazraea | 0.037 | 0.074 | 0.148 | 0.053 | 0.013 | 0.136 | 0.029 | 2.333 | 0.333 | 0.333 |
Hay Al-Askary | 0.083 | 0.086 | 1.333 | 0.078 | 0.014 | 0.636 | 0.010 | 1.333 | 1 | 0.25 |
Near Al-Al-Shuaiba Refinery | 0.071 | 0.076 | 0.791 | 0.121 | 0.045 | 0.5 | 0.076 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.5 |
Main Waste Area | 0.032 | 0.157 | 0.818 | 0.128 | 0.027 | 0.5 | 0.047 | 1.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Al-Hussain | 0.1 | 0.034 | 0.461 | 0.054 | 0.013 | 0.333 | 0.027 | 2.5 | 0.5 | 1 |
Al-Shuaiba Houses | 0.053 | 0.037 | 0.559 | 0.048 | 0.023 | 0.243 | 0.046 | 0.937 | 0.937 | 0.416 |
Al-Thobat | 0.071 | 0.142 | 0.323 | 0.117 | 0.050 | 0.416 | 0.060 | 0.333 | 0.2 | 1 |
AL-Shuhdaa | 0.066 | 0.062 | 0.407 | 0.089 | 0.021 | 0.285 | 0.058 | 0.75 | 1.5 | 0.333 |
Min | 0.032 | 0.034 | 0.041 | 0.048 | 0.013 | 0.136 | 0.010 | 0.333 | 0.2 | 0.2 |
Max | 0.111 | 0.461 | 1.333 | 0.278 | 0.112 | 1 | 0.181 | 7 | 1.5 | 1 |
Mean | 0.063 | 0.125 | 0.489 | 0.128 | 0.037 | 0.44 | 0.057 | 2.063 | 0.746 | 0.484 |
Ilwon Ko, Se-Yong Lee, Kyoung-Woong Kim and Jin Soo Lee
Econ. Environ. Geol. 2007; 40(5): 551-561